Q1(b). Discuss the type of Land Reforms to improve the agrarian system under British rule.

“Land revenue became the cornerstone of colonial control.” - Blyn, Agricultural Historian

Land reforms under British rule were primarily revenue systems aimed at maximising collection, not peasant welfare. These systems reshaped agrarian relations and deeply affected rural society.

Permanent Settlement (1793)

Introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal, it:

• Recognised zamindars as owners, making peasants tenants.
• Fixed revenue permanently.
• Encouraged absentee landlordism, rack-renting and peasant exploitation.

Ryotwari System

Introduced in Madras & Bombay Presidencies by Thomas Munro:

• Direct settlement between state and cultivator (ryot).
• Peasants became proprietors but faced high, frequently revised revenue demands.
• Increased indebtedness.

Mahalwari System

Implemented in North-West Provinces, Punjab, and parts of Central India:

• Revenue collected at the village (mahal) level.
• Lambardars and village bodies held responsibility.
• Created communal burden and often increased village debt.

Other Interventions

• Taluqdari system in Awadh.
• Agricultural policies encouraging cash crops (indigo, cotton, opium), causing food insecurity (Bengal Famine 1943).
• Canal colonies in Punjab improved productivity but increased peasant dependence on moneylenders.

British land revenue reforms commercialised agriculture but created absentee landlordism, peasant poverty, indebtedness, and structural inequalities that India addressed only after Independence through land ceiling and tenancy reforms.